The first skull-cap of "Peking Man," shown here in lateral view, was discovered by Dr. Pei Wenzhong on December 2, 1929. News of the discovery electrified the scientific world. The description of this skull-cap by Dr. Davidson Black, and the study by Dr. Franz Weidenreich of other specimens unearthed at Zhoukoudian, confirmed the human affinities of "Java Man" (Pithecanthropus erectus) and unequivocally established the existence of a form of humanity more archaic than the Neandertals then known from Europe. The discovery of prolific human fossil remains at Zhoukoudian shifted the focus of human evolutionary studies from Europe to the East Asian mainland throughout the 1930s and 40s.

Although this specimen was the first officially announced cranium of "Peking Man" it is now designated "Skull III" as remains of two other crania found earlier were subsequently identified. Skull III, shown here in frontal aspect, is that of a juvenile individual. It displays, however, the major physical features that distinguish Homo erectus from modern humans. These include projecting, bar-like brow-ridges; a sloping forehead; low cranial vault height, a broad cranial base and keeling of the vault along the sagittal (mid-line) suture.

Depicted here is Skull XII from Zhoukoudian, discovered on November 26, 1936, the most complete specimen from the site. When first described the material from Zhoukoudian was thought to be relatively heterogeneous. Weidenreich, however, attributed the great size disparity between certain specimens to a high degree of sexual dimorphism. In retrospect the Zhoukoudian specimens seem to be morphologically homogeneous and somewhat distinct from other forms of H. erectus known from China and elsewhere.

Shown here is Skull X from Zhoukoudian. As with other specimens from Zhoukoudian the face and cranial base are largely missing. This phenomenon was first attributed to cannibalism, whereby the face and cranial base were removed in order to get at the brains of the victim. It is now generally thought that the lose of the facial and basicranial bones is due to the gnawing action of porcupines that frequented the cave site.

Skull V from Zhoukoudian has an interesting history. Portions of this skull-cap were first found in the 1930s. Along with the rest of the human fossil collection from Zhoukoudian these fragments were lost during World War II. Excellent molds of all the human specimens were made, however, and primary casts are still available at the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology in Beijing and the American Museum in New York. In 1966 the frontal bone and a portion of the occipital bone of Skull 5 were found during renewed excavations at Zhoukoudian. They fit perfectly with casts of the original pieces found in 1934 and 1936, allowing for the reconstruction of a nearly complete skull-cap. Skull 5 is thought to come from younger deposits at Zhoukoudian and to show certain relatively advanced features compared to other crania from the site. In overall character, however, it does not differ significantly from previously known specimens of "Peking Man."

This composite reconstruction of the skull of "Peking Man" has come to epitomize H. erectus as a distinct human species. In actual fact the reconstruction, done by Weidenreich and his associates, represents a female. Many features of the Zhoukoudian crania, such as their "beetle-brows," and various crests and ridges on the surface bone of the skull tend to differentiate the "Peking Man" material from other contemporaneous humans. These seem to be localized rather than species defining features.

In lateral aspect the Zhoukoudian reconstruction displays the classic features of H. erectus These include a long, low skull that is "pinched" to the rear, projecting tori (i.e. ridges) anteriorally (i.e. brow ridges aka supraorbital tori) and posteriorally (i.e. the occipital torus), a low-lying temporal bone, chinless lower jaw and jutting out of the subnasal region (subnasal prognathism).

The reconstruction in superior view shows once again the straight, bar-like character of the projecting brow ridges and the pronounced post-orbital constriction characteristic of H. erectus at Zhoukoudian. For a full account of the discovery of "Peking man" and the excavations at Zhoukoudian see "The Story of Peking Man," by Jia Lanpo and Huang Weiwen, Oxford University Press, 1990.